Islam And Science

The sciences in Islam are the sciences that developed and practiced in the Islamic golden age during the reign of the Umayyad of Córdoba, Abadio of Seville, the Samanids, Ziyaris, Bouyahu Fares, the Abbasid Caliphate and beyond, in the period from h. 800 through 1250. Islamic scientific achievements included a wide range of fields of study, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other scientific fields included alchemy and chemistry, botany, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacy, physics, and zoology.

Islamic science in the Middle Ages had practical purposes in addition to the assimilation objective. For example, astronomy was an important science for determining the qiblah, botany had practical applications in agriculture, as in the works of Ibn Basal and Ibn al-Awam, and geography enabled Abu Zaid al-Balkhi to make accurate maps. Muslim mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, and Ghiath al-Din Kashi developed methods of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Entertaining physicians described diseases such as smallpox, measles, and defied ancient Greek medical theory. Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, and others described the preparation of hundreds of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Muslim physicists studied optics and mechanics (as well as astronomy) and criticized Aristotle's view of the movement.

Historians have discussed the importance of Islamic science in the Middle Ages. The traditional view says it lacks innovation and was primarily important for recognizing the ancient knowledge of medieval Europe. The literal view holds that Islamic sciences constitute a scientific revolution. Be that as it may, science has flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean Sea in more disciplines, for centuries, within a wide range of institutions.

Muslims invented new sciences that were unknown before and called them by their Arabic names such as chemistry, algebra, and trigonometry. From our reading of the Islamic scientific heritage, we find that Muslim scholars have invented the scientific method in research and writing. It was based on experience, viewing, and conclusion. Muslim scholars included illustrations in scientific books, machine drawings, and surgeries. Detailed geographic and astronomical mapping. Muslims invented encyclopedias and scientific dictionaries according to the alphabet. The discovery of the paper industry and the spread of the craft (paper) in the Islamic world favored the spread of manuscript copying and copying. The Arabic manuscripts varied between an interpreter and an author. The Islamic libraries were not, as they are in our time, just places for storing books. Rather, the main library had a device for translation and another for copying and transport and a device for preservation and distribution. The translators were of all kinds who knew Arabic with the language of their country. Then he was reviewing their translations, Arab scholars to fix linguistic errors.

Astronomy and Cosmology

A diagram designed by Al-Biruni explains that the lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth blocks the arrival of sunlight to the moon.

Diagram of Lunar Eclipse explained by Al Beruni

After knowing what a person cannot be ignorant of the laws and the Sunnah of the religion, Muslims considered astronomy or as it is also called "the science of body" of the most honorable sciences and their ranks are the best and the best ornament and I hang them in the hearts and the brightest in the souls and the most specific of thought and consideration and foster understanding and sport for the mind; Because of that, it is great luck and a great benefit to know the duration of years, months, times, times of times, the increase in night and day, its decrease, the places of the two lights, its eclipse, the path of the planets in its straightness and its return, its forms and levels of its orbits and all other occasions have been established. Muslims have found much of it in the Qur’an for a long time, and it can be broadly stated by mentioning and citing it: “In the creation of the heavens and the earth and the difference of night and day are signs for the first people” and “Blessed is He who made in Heaven the Zodiac” and “He who made the night and the moon a successor light” and “He is the one who He made the sun bright and the moon as a light and the power of homes to learn the number of years and the reckoning "and" and the moon computed "calls on them to look and perpetuate the thought to prove monotheism and to know it as the greatness of the Creator and the breadth of his wisdom and great capacity and gentle making. Therefore they excelled in this science. Ibrahim Al-Fazari was the most famous of the astrolabe in astronomy. The genius of Al-Khwarizmi also appeared in the marriage (astronomical table) that he made and called it the "Sind Hind al-Saghir", in which he combined the doctrines of the ancient in astronomy. And this marriage became a major impact in the East and West.

Muslim scholars were publishing a periodical book called Climate, which is annual or seasonal forecast encyclopedias that show the weather conditions every year, and the planting seasons for plants, weather and rain according to astronomical forecasts. This helped farmers and travelers learn about meteorology. Europe conveyed his idea. Currently, the annual encyclopedia of climate, Al (manac), is still published annually in most countries of the world.

Al-Ma'mun used a group of astronomers to observe the heavenly bodies and record the results of these observations, to verify the statements of Ptolemy the astronomer, and to study the costs of the sun. And they took the globe of the earth as a basis from which they started by measuring the earth's degree by observing the position of the sun from Palmyra and Sinjar at the same time. From this observation, they reached a grade of fifty-six miles and two-thirds of a mile - an estimate that is more than half a mile higher than our estimate at present and from these results, they estimated the circumference of the Earth at approximately twenty thousand miles. These astronomers did not accept anything except after it was proven by scientific expertise and experiments, and they were marching in their research on pure scientific rules, and one of them - Al-Farghani from the people of Ferghana - a state behind Gihon (circa 860) - wrote a book on astronomy that remained a reference that Europe and Western Asia relied on Seven hundred years. The most famous of him is Al-Battani, who has been forty-one years observing astronomical observations known for their accuracy and wide range. He reached with these observations many of the astronomical "transactions", which are characterized by their amazing proximity to the estimates of these days - including his estimation of the moderation of the equinoxes by 54.5 per year, and the inclination of the astronomy level by 5523. Among them was Abu al-Wafa, who was working under the auspices of the first sultans of Banu Buyi, the rulers of Baghdad, who revealed (as Sadilot says though his argument is still controversial) the third deviation of the moon six hundred years before Tycho Brahe revealed it. Muslim astronomers built expensive machines that were not limited to the astrolabe and the ringed balls that were known to ancient Greece, but also included machines for measuring angles with a radius of thirty feet and one-sixth of the radius of eighty feet. Muslims have entered. The astrolabe had many improvements, and it reached them in Europe in the tenth century AD, and it remained popular among sailors until the seventeenth century. The Arabs conceived it and created it, thanks to which it became a scientific tool and a masterpiece together.

Alchemy and Chemistry

The sciences in Islam are the sciences that developed and practiced in the Islamic golden age during the reign of the Umayyad of Córdoba, Abadio of Seville, the Samanids, Ziyaris, Bouyahu Fares, the Abbasid Caliphate and beyond, in the period from h. 800 to 1250. Islamic scientific achievements included a wide range of fields of study, particularly astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other scientific fields included alchemy and chemistry, botany, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacy, physics, and zoology.

Islamic science in the Middle Ages had practical purposes in addition to the assimilation objective. For example, astronomy was an important science for determining the qiblah, botany had practical applications in agriculture, as in the works of Ibn Basal and Ibn al-Awam, and geography enabled Abu Zaid al-Balkhi to make accurate maps. Muslim mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi, Ibn Sina, and Ghiath al-Din Kashi developed methods of algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Entertaining physicians described diseases such as smallpox, measles, and defied ancient Greek medical theory. Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina, and others described the preparation of hundreds of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Muslim physicists studied optics and mechanics (as well as astronomy) and criticized Aristotle's view of the movement.

Historians have discussed the importance of Islamic science in the Middle Ages. The traditional view says it lacks innovation and was primarily important for recognizing the ancient knowledge of medieval Europe. The literal view holds that Islamic sciences constitute a scientific revolution. Be that as it may, science has flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean Sea in more disciplines, for centuries, within a wide range of institutions.

Muslims invented new sciences that were unknown before and called them by their Arabic names such as chemistry, algebra, and trigonometry. From our reading of the Islamic scientific heritage, we find that Muslim scholars have invented the scientific method in research and writing. It was based on experience, viewing, and conclusion. Muslim scholars included illustrations in scientific books, machine drawings, and surgeries. Detailed geographic and astronomical mapping. Muslims invented encyclopedias and scientific dictionaries according to the alphabet. The discovery of the paper industry and the spread of the craft (paper) in the Islamic world favored the spread of manuscript copying and copying. The Arabic manuscripts varied between an interpreter and an author. The Islamic libraries were not, as they are in our time, just places for storing books. Rather, the main library had a device for translation and another for copying and transport and a device for preservation and distribution. The translators were of all kinds who knew Arabic with the language of their country. Then he was reviewing their translations, Arab scholars to fix linguistic errors.

In these glorious centuries of the history of Islamic life, Muslims spared no effort in working to find this understanding that we referred to in the previous chapter. The caliphs realized the delay of the Arabs in science and philosophy, just as they realized the abundant scientific wealth left by Greece in the Levant. The sons of illiterate people were wise as they left the major schools of Christianity, Sabianism, or Persian, based in Alexandria, Beirut, Antioch, Harran, Nusaybin, and Gandispor untouched, and these schools retained the mothers of books in philosophy and science, most of them in the Syriac translation. These books impressed the knowledgeable Muslims in the Syriac and Greek languages, and their translations into Arabic soon appeared at the hands of Christian or Jewish Nestorians. The princes of the Umayyad and Banis al-Abbas encouraged this fruitful scientific borrowing, and sent al-Mansur, Al-Ma`mun, and al-Mutawakkil the Apostles to Constantinople and other Hellenistic cities - and at times sent them to Roman emperors their oldest enemies - asking them to supply them with Greek books, especially medical or mathematical books. In this way, Euclid's book on engineering reached the hands of Muslims. Al-Mamoun established in Baghdad in 830 the House of Wisdom, a scientific complex, an astronomical observatory, and a public library, and spent two hundred thousand dinars on its establishment (about 950,000 US riyals). A group of translators lived there and made money for them from Bayt Al-Mal. Ibn Khaldun says that Islam owes to this scientific institute the great Islamic vigilance that its parts were shaken by, which are similar in its causes - the spread of trade and the revelation of the treasures of Greece - and in its results - the prosperity of science and arts - we say that they are similar in their causes and results to the European Renaissance that followed the Middle AgesThese fruitful, fruitful translation works lasted from 750 to 900, and during this period the translators worked to transfer the mothers of books from Syriac, Greek, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit.

Botany

And in Islamic countries, they followed the techniques of agricultural mechanization inherited such as plow, water-worm, shadows, and nature. The Andalusians were making fun of wind in the management of the mills and rising water in the water. And Europe took this technology and other Andalusia from them during the Umayyad era. This technique was taken by the West from the Arabs during the Umayyad state, and the windmills were well known in the city of Hama, which is the waterfalls of Hama, which has no analogs in the world until today, which is the system of lifting water from the river through channels installed overarches to irrigate the orchards and areas on both sides of the river. Or the cyclones, but in sizes much smaller than those in Hama, and in Baghdad, windmills were run with inclination or air to raise water and run the paper mill there. Windmills and water-lifters were driven by geared wheels and huge interlocking wheels. The theory of pipelines in delivering water in a network of pipes to homes. Damascus was known to build fountains inside homes, and it was a forerunner in that. Muslims have excelled in exploiting the science of tricks in making weapons.

Quince trees, cypress, and sumac, in the wonders of creatures and 

curious creatures, Zakaria Qazwini, 13th century

They developed the catapult and wooden tanks, and they were the first to manufacture cannons, rifles, and a piston pump that was invented by Badi El-Zaman, Al-Razzaz Al-Jazirah (d.1184 AD). And a pump, Al-Jazari is a machine made of metal that is managed by the force of the wind or by an animal circling in a circular motion and was intended to raise water from the wells. Deep into the surface of the earth, as well as was used to raise water from the river’s level if it was low to the higher places such as it has been stated in the references that it can pump water until it reaches thirty three feet, or about ten meters, which is equivalent to the height of a building consisting of three or four Floors, and the pump is installed directly above the surface of the water so that the suction column is immersed in it, and it consists of two opposite tubes in each arm that holds a cylindrical piston. If one of the two pipes is in the state of the (left) squeeze, the second is in the state of suction, and to secure this opposite countermovement At the same time, there is a circular toothed disc in which both arms are fixed away from the center, and this disk is managed by gears connected to the central movement shaft and there are three valves on each pump that allow the water to go from the bottom up and not allow it to return in a reverse way. This genius design was not known to the Romans and the Greeks, and the principle of the piston pump is still used in the present time in all hand-operated piston pumps to raise water. It is spread in many villages all over the world. This pump is the main idea upon which all the advanced pumps of today are built and all mechanical motors starting from the steam engine in the train or steamers to the internal combustion engine that works with gasoline as in the car and the plane, and the pioneering idea that Al Jazari introduced is to use two pistons and two cylinders that work in parallel In parallel, then the resulting movement is transferred and converted from a linear movement to a circular motion by a system whose use adopts the geared gears, which is currently applied in all modern engines.

Geography And Cartography

This great interest in photographing the sky was outweighed by his interest in photographing the regions of the earth because Muslims were living on the cultivation of the earth and on trade in its various regions. Suleiman the Merchant - who lived about (851) a description of this journey of Suleiman, was the oldest Arabic description for China and wrote it four hundred and twenty-five years before the Marco Polo trips.

The picnic book Al-Mushtaq in Breaking the Horizons,

 written by the Idrisi of King Roger II of Sicily in 1154 is

  considered one of the most advanced maps of the ancient world.

 In that same century, Ibn Khordizia wrote a description of the countries of India, Ceylon, the East Indies, and the countries of China, and it seems that he relied on what he wrote on his travels in those countries and what he saw in him himself. Ibn Hawqal described the countries of India and Africa, and Ahmad al-Yaqoubi, of Armenian and Khurasan people, wrote in 891 the book of countries in which he described Islamic countries and cities and many foreign countries as a creative description of trust. Muhammad al-Maqdisi visited all Islamic countries as well as Andalusia, and during his travels, he met with great adversity. Then, in 985 he wrote his book The Best Divisions in Knowledge of the Territories, which is the greatest book on knowing the geography of Islamic countries before Al-Biruni's book on India.

Remaining part of the first world map of Perry Reese, showing the map of 

South America and the living creatures and tribes on its coasts.

Maths

Since the science of arithmetic is closed to the beginner if it is by way of proof, the Muslims considered that it is a better education to start arithmetic through the way of doing problems because it is clear knowledge and his evidence is regular, so a bright mind that indicates righteousness arises from him, and they say that he who took himself to learn the account The first thing is dominated by honesty, because in the account of the validity of the buildings and the competition of the soul, this becomes for him to be moral, and honesty accustoms it and accompanies it as a doctrine. The Muslims need a new science from the science of accounting that helps them in the transactions of buying and selling between peoples with different currencies, scales, and the contract system. Al-Mamoun instructs al-Khwārizm الرياضيات, the mathematician, to devote himself to devising a new method for solving the difficult equations facing arithmetic operators. So he put his book "Algebra and Interview" and among its purposes, saying when presenting: (It obliges people from the need for it in their inheritance and wills, in their dividing terms, rulings, and trade, and in all that they deal with them in terms of the area of ​​the two lands, rivers, engineering, and other aspects and arts). The book dealt with the calculations and methods, from calculating the circumference of the globe, its diameter, latitude, and longitude in countries to the areas of countries and cities and the distances between them. Then the areas of streets and rivers to the areas of loss and homes .. Calculating wills and inheritances and dividing complex legacies. Astronomical calculations, and architectural calculation. All of them were facing problems and difficulty in calculating them in the first two ways. Muslim mathematicians had researched various aspects of arithmetic, engineering, and numerology to sum, separate, weak, multiply, and divide, and figured out how to dig out the roots in integers and incorrect. They showed fractions, pictures, methods of collecting, separating, multiplying and dividing them, extracting the roots of quadratic and cubic fractions, multiplication and division by using geometry, solving number problems, and built their properties and applications in transactions and exchange, converting dirhams, dinars, wages, profit, loss, zakat, tribute, abscess, livelihoods calculation, postage, combined numbers, and other mathematical sciences.

A page from the manual on calculating algebra and corresponding

 to Al-Khwarizmi.

And the people of Morocco used ways in which they are unique in the partial works of this science. As the numbers used now in the East are originally Indian numbers, while the numbers used internationally are the Arabic numbers that Muslims put based on the method of the angles and the Muslims added to it the zero system, without which we would also not have been able to solve many mathematical equations of various grades, it was easy to use all The work of arithmetic, and the numbering system concluded from the complexity, and the use of zero in the arithmetic operations led to the discovery of the decimal fraction discovered by the mathematical scientist Jamshid bin Mahmoud Ghiath Al-Din Al-Kashi (d. 840 AH - 1436 AD), as mentioned in his book (Key to the Account of the World). This was an introduction to studies and very small mathematical operations. The Arabic numerals were zero and their decimal fractions are truly the gift of Islam to Europe. This book included the aberration, which is astronomical mathematical tables that show the locations of stars and their movements. Ibrahim Al-Fazari is considered the first to manufacture the astrolabe. It is an astronomical instrument that is used to monitor planets

For the cubic equation and the intersection of the conical sections 

of Omar Khayyam.

Medicine

Muslim doctors have developed wound healing techniques and created a dry, closed, spare method. And the wicks of surgery dipped in honey to prevent internal purification, a method that was transmitted by the Spanish and applied by the Europeans in their wars. And the Muslim surgeons had surgically jumped and moved it from the stage of arrows as it was when the Greeks to the stage of delicate surgery and this facilitated their discovery of anesthesia before surgery, and they reached what they called the shrine (anesthetic is a sponge soaked in a solution of complex herbs hemp (cannabis)) The poppy (opium) and West El Hassan are left to dry and before the operation, the sponge is placed in the patient's mouth.

Not only did Muslim physicians use the narcotic sponge method, but they used it as an anal or mouth drink. Muslims knew anesthesia by inhalation. And Avicenna showed his influence by saying: “He who breathed his scent will offer him a deep slumber of his watch.” To recover from anesthesia, Arab physicians used a sponge called stimulant sponge saturated with vinegar to remove the effect of the drug and the patient's recovery after surgery. Ibn Sina told us in his book "Al-Qanoon" about anesthesia by refrigeration, saying: (Among other things, the water-cooled with ice is extremely cooled). He described how to use refrigeration as a local anesthetic, as in dental surgery. Before that, surgeons were prone to internal surgery, and they were satisfied with amputations. Ironing with fire to stop internal bleeding. But by discovering Al-Razi's invention of sutures from the animal's gut, they could safely sew any internal organ without having to open it again to remove the surgical wires. Surgeons used to sew their surgical needles and sutures from silk or from the gut of animals to connect internal and external wounds or from gold thread to straighten the teeth.

And with the development of surgery for Muslims, after they discovered anesthesia, they invented many surgical instruments that were not known before them, including machines made of silver, steel, or copper. The names of the machines indicated the extent and extent of the surgery. There are scalpels of all kinds for external and internal surgery, including double-edged and edged edges and large saws for amputation and small for internal bone cutting. And scalpels of various shapes, including the spiny and hooked scalpels, to cut the tonsils. And Al-Mujaddad, Al-Mujahidar, Al-Mubadar, and Al-Kalyan. She examined the scissors and scissors for ophthalmic operations and peat in its various sizes and shapes, such as large peat used in gynecology to extract the fetus or facilitate its birth. Or the peat used in orthopedics to extract bone or weapon residue in the body, or used in ear, nose, and eye surgery. And the hooks that enter between the vessels and the veins and nerves and in internal vascular surgery and sewing.

In bone fractures, doctors used types of splints from woven, palm grove, or wood. Forced people were treating joint dislocations and bone fractures by manual means in experience and skill without the need for incision in surgery and often use tensile joint to prevent recurrence of dislocation, and they also invented the method of sudden response to dislocation. Ironing with different irons was inherited by the Arabs from the pre-Islamic period, and Muslim healers used it as a pain reliever for chronic and incurable diseases such as women's sweat, lambic, and migraines. They identified maps of the human body, in which they identified ironing sites for each disease. Ironing may be in more than one disease. Muslim doctors devised types of protected irons, among them precision needles of one tooth, two or three branches. They made it from iron, copper, gold, or silver and determined the appropriate temperature to treat each disease. In his book Al-Qanun, Ibn Sina identified the main rules for cancer surgery. There are three stages: early detection, early surgery, and complete removal. Al-Zahrawi mentioned cancer treatment in his book “Al-Tarif”, saying: (When the cancer is in a place that can be completely eradicated, such as cancer that is in the breast or in the thigh and the like among the organs that enable it to be excreted in its entirety, if it is a small beginner, then do so. I was able to exonerate him from him. He described the process, saying: (Then he received the hooks that are suitable for him, then pans him from each side with the skin on a survey so that nothing of his origins remains and leave the blood running and do not cut it quickly, but squeeze the places as much as you can).

One of the colorful illustrations of human anatomy, by Mansour Ibn Elias. 

This graphic shows the circulatory and nervous systems, as they appear from the back.

 From the manuscript "Anatomy of the Human Body", circa 1450.

 At the National Library of Medicine.

Al-Zahrawi was conducting a thyroidectomy. It is a process that no surgeon in Europe dared to undertake except in the nineteenth century after nine centuries, and he demonstrated this process by saying: (This tumor is called elephant elephants and it is a great tumor on the color of the body and it is in many women. It is of two types that are either natural or accidental As for the natural, there is no trick in it. As for the accidental one, it has two strikes, one similar to fatty goods, and the other type is similar to a tumor that is complicated by the artery and in a dangerous apartment, so it is not exposed to iron at all. Surgery in the lower part of the intestine must be tilted toward the head. The opposite is true, and the aim is to reduce bleeding during the operation and expand the hand of the surgeon. He cautioned on the importance of warming the intestine when leaving the abdomen if it is difficult to return quickly, with warm water so as not to become paralyzed. He also invented (cyanosis) to wash the bladder and introduce medications to treat it from the inside. As the process of breaking up a bladder stone before it is excreted, he said: (If the stone is very great, then it is ignorant to have a great incision made on it because it exposes the patient to one of two things: either he dies or distillation occurs in him in the urine, and it is better to circumvent the fracture with cuffs and then cut it out definitely).

In the year 836 AD, the caliph Al-Mu'tasim ordered the construction of a large morgue on the shore of the Tigris River in Baghdad and that this morgue be provided with types of monkeys similar to their composition in the human body in order for medical students to train for their anatomy. A book on Muslims’s literature in medicine was not devoid of a separate chapter on anatomy, in which the various organs are described in detail and every muscle, race and nerve in his name. The Muslims relied first on what was written by the Greeks in the anatomy of the human body in order to avoid religious embarrassment. But they discovered through the comparative anatomy (that is, the anatomy of animals) many errors in the information of the Greeks, and they began to rely on themselves. A time during their study of legislation, Ibn al-Nafis discovered the microcirculation. They discovered that the liver consisted of two lobes, not five lobes, as the ancient Greeks believed. And Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, who died in 1231 CE, discovered that the lower jaw of a human being consisted of one bone and not two bones, as Galen mentioned after examining (2000) a human skull. And he discovered that the deficit bone consists of one piece and not six pieces, as the Greek Galen stated. Ibn al-Haytham, who died in 1037 CE, had discovered the anatomy of the eye layers and the functions of each layer. Such as the lens, pupil, retina, and nerves connected from the eye to the brain. Ibn Rushd also discovered the functions of the retina.

Al-Ain according to Hanin bin Ishaq, H. 1200.

Muslims used to call ophthalmology the name of the kohl, and a number of their doctors were known as the kohl .. for their prominence in this art .. and the Kohala is not limited to the treatment of kohl and kohl only "so the kohl was included" besides these drugs included specialized surgical instruments and eye surgery has developed In countries with many diseases such as Egypt and Andalusia.

And in herbal medicine, they discovered thousands of unknown plants and explained their benefits. Most herbs experimented with animals like monkeys first. The attending physician was the pharmacist or herbalist at the same time. Then the disciplines separated and the doctor wrote recipes called (mintings). The patient would hand her over to the herbalist or perfumer who rides it to him, and Damascus was famous for its herbal medicine and it was the most famous perfumers, healers, and herbalists, and Muslim scholars were circumventing bitter medications that the same patient recovered in different ways, so Ibn Sina was the first to recommend packaging the drug with gold or silver salts, for this reason, Then the medication tablets for Muslims became wrapped with no taste. Ibn Al-Bitar (Sheikh Al-Attarin) was roaming the world with a painter who would paint for him in his books the plant in colors in all its conditions, phases, and growth. He alone discovered 300 new medicinal plants that he explained in his books and brought them with. And the major herbalists have written many books and scientific encyclopedias in this science. Among the most important is Ibn Al-Bitar, the author of the book "Vocabulary of Medicines".

Arab medicine was concerned with "the medicine of the elderly" and defined "organic psychiatry" as the medicine of insane and incarcerated people. Ibn Sina was the first to mention the effect of psychological conditions on the digestive system, stomach ulcers, blood circulation, and rapid pulse. Arab doctors used to follow preventive medicine and infectious diseases. They knew the infection and its role in the transmission of diseases hundreds of years before the discovery of the microscope and microbes. They showed the harm of contact with a contagious disease or the use of its vessels or clothes, and the role of spit and secretions in transmitting the infection. Ibn Rushd had discovered the immunity that a patient generates after suffering from an infectious disease such as smallpox. Show that he does not catch it again. And they used to make a kind of vaccination against smallpox (they take some pimples from a sick patient and feed them to the healthy person by placing them on the palm of the hand and rubbing well or making a scratch in their place) which is the same idea of ​​vaccination that was later attributed to Europe. The Umayyads concerned with organizing the medical profession and the methods of working with it and treatment, and they issued legislations organizing this, for therapists and doctors, and there was a legislative law regulating the practice of the medical profession. Ethics and ethics for the profession. And everyone who practiced the medical profession was taken by the Muslim doctor’s department, which depended on maintaining the patient’s secret and treatment without discrimination and preserving the dignity and secrets of the profession. In the year 833 AD - 218 AH (14), during the reign of the Caliph al-Mamun, the first law on pharmaceutical licenses was issued, whereby a pharmacist will be tested and then he will be given a decree authorizing him to work. The law subjected pharmacies to calculation (inspection). The Caliph had assigned Al-Razi, the Sheikh of the Doctors, to write a book entitled “The Ethics of the Doctor” to study for students. In which he explained the human relationship between doctors and patients and between them and some of them. Domestic.

The Pharmacy

Herbal medicine started with the animal. A person learned from him when he noticed that when the dogs were ill, they ate herbs, and they would calm down and heal. When cats felt stomach pain, the cats were searching for and eating the mint to help them flush gas from their stomachs. Man discovered that the peppermint contains essential oils that are volatile for wind. The person began to select his medicine from herbs. During the years, he had a therapeutic experience, drawing on the help of his surroundings. There were ancient sources among all the peoples of the ancient world for single medicines: plant, animal, and mineral since the dawn of history in primitive societies and in the bush. Throughout its history, man has tried to treat diseases such as grass, plants, stone, metal, deer, or animal's claw. The story of medication with animals started instinctively in China, ancient Egypt, Babylon, the Greeks, Ptolemies, Romans, and Arabs. And the beginning of his practice of pharmacy when the first person put the juice of the leaves of plants over the wounds to treat them. And the profession of pharmacy is now, is the practice of combining drugs and making them through the ages and related to the health and life of man and animals. The pharmacy is the place where the medicinal substance materia medica is selected, installed, circulated, and sold. It is a branch of medicine. The pharmacy is concerned with the nature, properties, and preparation of medicines. For this, we find a chemical and medical profession because it is responsible for discovering new therapeutic drugs against diseases and manufacturing organic materials with therapeutic value. Moreover, the pharmacist provides medical and health advice to the public. Pharmacy and medical practice were practiced in temples through priests. That is why the treatment of patients with medication and religious spells was early in human history. Pharmacy specialization began to appear in the eighth century in the civilized world of Baghdad. Then it spread gradually in Europe under the name of chemistry and chemists. Doctors were preparing the medicine and prescribing it to patients. The drugs were either single drugs consisting of a single natural component (one) and combined drugs that were composed of several natural elements and the Arabs called them the relatives. Pharmacists have recently become dealing with complex medications and treatments other than what was made of crushers, pods, and alcoholic fluids that were included in the British Pharmacopeia Pharmacopoeia in 1618 and the French Pharmacopoeia in 1639 or the American Pharmacopoeia in 1820. These constitutions included the drugs and drugs that were in circulation in each country. Pharmacists and doctors together commissioned by the health authorities, which includes a classification of the drug, its use, methods of knowing its fraud, its specifications, its detection, its uses, and determining its doses.

The pharmacy of the Chinese.

The ancient Chinese knew medication of herbs and medicinal plants, and Chinese scientists were experimenting with the effect of drugs on themselves and on animals. The Chinese scholar: Shen Tong (22nd century BC) is the author of the pharmacy book: "Bin Cao", which is considered the first pharmacopeia with 365 plant medicines per year. Shen Tong is the founder of pharmacy in China. Where he discovered the effect of the activated and venomous "Zhang Chang" plant. From it, he currently extracts ephedra, which is used in asthma. The Chinese were soaking medicinal herbs in water or fermenting them, and using ointments and medicinal dressings, and they divided vegetable drugs into sweet muscles to feed and salty to feed blood vessels, and bitter to feed the body. They gave great importance to individual drugs, avoided combination drugs, and later exchanged medical information with Muslim scholars in Jizan.

Chinese Pharmacy

Priests in ancient Egypt monopolized the practice of medicine and pharmacy in the temples and houses of life attached to them. Imhotep is one of the most famous doctors and pharmacists of ancient Egypt in the 30th century BC. The ancient Egyptians recorded their experience with medicines on the walls of temples, tombs, and papyrus leaves, and among the most famous of these papyri are the (Ypres) papyrus, which dates back to the 16th century B.C. The ancient Egyptians relied on embalming the dead bodies and preserving them from damage to some plants, such as meats, onions, gum, sambar cucumber, myrrh, frankincense, sawdust, flax, and date wine.

Pharmacy of the Greeks.

The Greeks benefited from the heritage of the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, and peoples of the ancient world in medication. They considered the snake a symbol of life, wisdom, and healing, just as the Egyptians considered the cobra a symbol for it. Herbalists used to collect most prescription drugs in the dark, and at the beginning of the lunar month, according to special rules. Among the most famous Greek pharmacologists are Hippocrates, the father of medicine (460-337 BC), Theophrastus the Father of plants (387-317 BC), Aristotle the first teacher (384 BC) and the Greek doctor Dioscorides who wrote a book titled: "The Medical Article" in which the efficacy Therapeutic drugs for a plant, animal and mineral drugs.

Pharmacy at the Ptolemies

The Ptolemaic era in Greece begins with the death of Alexander the Great in (323 BC). In Alexandria, hundreds of species of herbs and medicinal plants were planted in its gardens, and their medicinal properties and effects were studied by scientists, including the poet scholar "Nyakor", the thousand thousand two poems, one of them on the medicinal plant, animal and mineral drugs, poisons and their countermeasures, and the second in the name of "antidote". The Greeks used to make ointments and suppositories in preparing medicines. The chemistry was first found in Alexandria during the Greek period. Greek scientists considered that all things consist of air, dust, fire, and water. In the fourth century AD, astrology, magic, and talismans became important. The Greek scholars of Greece had great credit for the establishment of schools concerned with the science of medicine and pharmacy, and the Greeks raised their priest "Escolas" to the ranks of the gods and called him the title of the god of healing. Their snakes were a symbol of life, wisdom, and healing, and the snake wrapped around the stick remained a symbol of pharmacy to this day.

The pharmacy of the Romans.

The Romans benefited from information about the medicines of the Greeks, the ancient Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Ptolemies through the Alexandria School whose sciences were transferred to Rome. The most famous of the physicians was Aromann, the drug therapist Andromak "(20-70 BC)," "Desquorides" (6-50 BC) who wrote a book on medicinal herbs he called "the weeds" in which he mentioned 500 vegetable drugs, "and Galen" the father of pharmacy ( 130-201 BC), and he has 98 books on medicine and pharmacy. As for the Romans, they transferred to Rome many of the civilization of the ancient Greeks and the ancient Egyptians through the Alexandria Library, which contained thousands of manuscripts. The ruler of Rome "Kano" was famous for placing cabbage leaves on wounds, ulcers, and tumors. Andromache used to use a formula in which dozens of herbs are used as an antidote to treat poisoning cases. And Disorders has authored several books, the most important of which is “poppy” and in which he mentioned 500 medications. And the poppy tree that comes from it.

Chinese Pharmacy

Pharmacy in the Arabs.

Medication for Arabs was plant flowers, seeds, and roots. They used onions and cumin to treat chest diseases, garlic to treat worms and stomach diseases, figs to treat constipation, fenugreek for asthma and cough diseases, the black seed for gastrointestinal diseases, truffles for eye diseases, and toothpicks for dental treatment. Islam liberated science and medicine from divination, fortune-telling, and sorcery.

Pharmacy Icon: The names of some medicinal plants are mentioned in the hadiths of the Prophet in the field of treatment and in the field of medicines, syrups, and pigments, and these plants are dates, basil, bitter melon, mustard, sesame, thorns, monkeys, barley, chard, buckwheat, term, watermelon, cucumber, garlic. , Onions, grapes, henna, saffron, saffron, sandalwood, camphor, aloes, and black seed. Arab scientists discovered new drugs that they added to the pharmacology, among them: laxatives such as rhubarb, sambaki, acacia, and stimulants such as vomiting nuts, aconite (wolf choke), hemp (cannabis), and ergot (wheat rust) as a pain reliever, poppy (opium) as a sedative, to relieve pain, stop cough and prevent diarrhea. And they used camphor, sandalwood, cloves, bitter, nutmeg, tamarind, cinnamon, anise, ginger, and spices for medication. The Arabs were practicing the patient's anesthesia during surgeries, as Rio confirmed that Moroccan doctors were using the drunken anesthetic herb, and it was good for the circumcision process or a combination of drunken and sulfur medication, and the steam from cooking them would be a drug that lasts for 24 hours. Often they use the organs of some Animals to treat diseases such as rabies (rabies) by eating 9 weights (grams) from the dog's kidneys as soon as it is killed, or its bitterness that contains an anti-rabies bacterium.

Arabs felt since the second century of migration the importance of pharmacology in medical experiments, as they were convinced that knowledge of chemistry is essential in pharmacy research, and Bertilo emphasized in his book "Chemistry in the Middle Ages" that Jabir ibn Hayyan’s books on chemistry are the goal of what the human mind has achieved in innovation And that all those working in this science after him were dependent on him. And the first to regulate and restrict the medical industry in the interest of the public, the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim, so he imposed an exam in medicine and pharmacy and conducted the first exam for pharmacists in 221 AH. The accountant (the doctors and pharmacists swore the professional secret. It is that they do not give anyone a bitter medicine and do not install poison to him or make amulets for anyone from the public, and do not mention to women the medicine that drops the fetuses, nor to the men, the medicine that cuts off the offspring, disregards the incest, and does not divulge secrets and provide all Machines). The science of medicine and medication for the Arabs was flourishing while the Europeans were ignorant of him and despised his companions, as the Church had forbidden them to visit and restricted the medication to visiting churches and hospitalization by blessing the saints and spells and sophistication that the religious men were selling and the Europeans denounced cleanliness and ablution because they resembled ablution in Muslims and botanists called In the East with herbs, trees, vegetarians, and lawns. It flourished in the Levant and Andalusia Botany in the 12th century, and the Nabati (Abu al-Abbas Ahmad bin Mufaraj known as Ibn al-Rumiyyah, born in Seville in the year 61 AH 5 AH) and his student Ibn al-Bitar, Andalusian and Rashid al-Din al-Suri, died in 639 AH. Nabati studied the herbs of Andalusia and Morocco. He classified the book (weeds) and arranged its names according to the letters of the dictionary. Lockean Ibn Al-Bitar said: “He is the greatest vegetarian of the Arabs and is not matched by doctors. Ibn Al-Bitar benefited from his transportation in the mountains of the Levant and was accompanied by a painter depicting herbs. He went to the East in 1217 AD and passed through Morocco, and recorded various notes about herbs and some names. In his book, he crammed what he had heard and read in the categories of individual medications and set them on the letters of the lexicon. He was appointed by the full Sultan, the chief of herbalists, and died in Egypt 1 248 AD. His book The Vocabulary Collector has the most complete and extensive of what Arabs have described in medicine. Locklear has translated into French and includes hundreds of prescription drugs. The study of pharmacy flourished during the Abbasid Caliphate from 750 AD until 1258, especially when the book of Jabir bin Hayyan, which is considered the oldest in chemistry, was collected in which he gathered knowledge and his research, especially on gold, mercury, arsenic, sulfur, salts, and acids, and it was believed that minerals were a mixture made of mercury. And sulfur in different proportions. After that, new elements were discovered and other methods of preparation were developed. From the Arabs, chemistry science found its way from Andalusia, Spain to Europe, and the science of pharmacy during the Abbasid caliphate became a stand-alone science that complements the medical profession, and the emergence of pharmacology for Arabs dates back to the eighth century. There were drug installers at Gundispur Hospital, Iran. Pharmacology and medicine were applied in hospitals and in public and private pharmacies. Al-Biruni's “Pharmacy in Medicine” book (the tenth and eleventh centuries) was a rich source of information. It displays the history of pharmacology among Arabs. It includes definitions of pharmacology and the classification of drugs in the form of food, medicine, and toxins. Al-Biruni defined the word pharmacy and its equivalence is pharmacy or the profession of pharmacy. It is (based on the knowledge of simple drugs, their types, types, and characteristics, and on the knowledge of making compound drugs according to their fixed recipe (codified) or according to the desire of the person entrusted with the documented and reformed treatment) · The laws of pharmacy have evolved over the centuries, especially after studying the constitution of pharmacy established by Qalânîsî in the 13th century.

Alchemy was in the Middle Ages, its research is based on trying to convert base metals into gold and silver and trying to find a way to extend human life. In the Middle Ages, the English scientist Roger Bacon and others still believed that the vile minerals could be converted into gold .. And they tried to discover the philosopher's stone to prepare gold from it and the elixir to extend life. Through their experiences, they discovered Kebbetah to prepare the spirit of wine (alcohol) from it and separate it. In 1817, the two French pharmacists, Pelletier and Bienaimé, extracted emetine from the roots of ipecacuanha, strychnine, and brucine from nux vomica in 1818 in their pharmacy. Pilate was able to separate quinine and cinchonine from cinchona barks to treat malaria in 1820.

Ben Sina used to teach medicines. 

Ibn Sina's Law, 15th century

Physics

Physics includes the science of tricks and optics. In the science of tricks, the children of Musa bin Shakir became famous in the ninth century AD. Among their inventions was the huge astronomical observing machine that was working in their observatory and managed by force of water propulsion and it was showing all the stars in the sky and reflecting them on a large mirror.

Drawing of a lamp in the book of tricks, written by Banu

Knowledge of tricks.

Knowledge of useful tricks or (mechanics), Arabs invented the science of useful tricks and developed it to a high degree of mastery. The aim of this was to benefit from it, to provide manpower, to expand the mechanical force, and to benefit from the simple effort to obtain a greater dimension of human and animal effort. Scientists considered it simple energy that gives more effort. Through it, they wanted to achieve the benefit of man and use the resourceful place of strength and mind in place of muscles and machines instead of the body. And dispense with the slave labor and physical effort.

So they resorted to mechanical energy to dispense with the vital energy that depends on slaves and animals, especially since Islam prevented the system of forced labor in eliminating the living matters that required a great physical effort. It also prohibited the exhaustion of servants, slaves, and hardship on the animal by not holding them above what they could not tolerate, so Muslims tended to develop machines so that they could do these arduous work in their stead.

Kinesiology, currently, is based on three main laws, which had been enacted by the English scientist Newton in the early 18th century, when he published it in his famous book, The Mathematical Origins of Natural Philosophy. In these laws, Newton had collected ancient Arab information from what Arab scholars had written about the movement of things seven centuries before his era. However, he formulated it in the form of mathematical equations. And take their definitions of these three laws and attributed to him. In the first law of movement, he said: (The body remains in a state of stillness or in the case of regular movement in a straight line unless external forces compel it to change this state). And this Al-Safa Brothers says, in their famous letters: (The college bodies, each one has a special position and is standing in it, does not come out except by forced force). Ibn Sina, who died in 1037 CE, says. In his book, "Signs and Alerts": (You know that if the body evacuated and its character did not expose to it from the outside a strange effect that did not have a specific position and a specific form. Then its printing principle is positive in that. If something moves a body and there is no objection in that body His greater acceptance of stirring was the same as his smaller acceptance, one of which is not the most extreme and the other is more voluntary since there is no impedance at all). Then comes after Ibn Sina Muslim scholars throughout the ages explaining his law and conducting practical experiments on him, and in this says Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, who died in 1209 CE with his book “The Eastern Investigations”: (You say the nature of each element that requires the movement on the condition of leaving the natural space. Natural space). In his book, "The Eastern Investigations in the Science of Divinities and Naturals," Ibn Sina says: (We have shown that the ranks of speed and slowness are renewed according to the renewal of the ranks of external and internal constraints). As for Newton's second law of movement, its text states: (The acceleration of a body during its movement is proportional to the force affecting it, and in the application of this law to the falling of objects under the influence of gravity of the Earth, the result is that if two bodies fall from the same height, they reach the surface of the Earth in the same The moment, regardless of their weight, even if one of them is an iron block and the other a feather, but what happens from the difference in speed is due to the difference in the air resistance of them, while the acceleration strength of them is the same).

Imam Fakhreddin Al-Razi says in his book “The Eastern Investigation”: (If the two bodies differed in the acceptance of the movement, this difference was not due to the moving one, but rather due to the difference in the state of the driving force, then the force in the larger body is more than in the smaller that is its part because what is in the smaller It is present in the largest with an increase), then explains the difference in the resistance of the outer medium, such as the air of the falling bodies, and says: (As for the force, it differs its movement to the great and the small body.

Newton's third law states that each action has an equal and opposite reaction in its magnitude). And Abu Barakat, the gift of God al-Baghdadi, who died in 1165 CE. In his book “The Crossing in Wisdom,” he said with this effect: (The attracting link between the wrestlers of each one of those attracted in attracting them is a force resisting the strength of the other. Otherwise, the other would not need all that attraction), and Imam Fakhreddin Al-Razi says in his book “The Eastern Investigations”: (The ring attracted by equal attractors until I stood in the middle, there is no doubt that each of them did a handicap by doing the other). These three laws of stability, movement, and reaction are the basic laws that underpin all current machine science and moving things.

 

A picture from Al-Jazari's book "The Combining of Science and Beneficial

 Work in Making Tricks".

Zoology.

The animal book for the protester, in which he spoke about the Arabs and the Arabs, their conditions, customs, claims, and sciences, some issues of jurisprudence and religion, and a selected elite of Arabic poetry, proverbs, statement, and critique of the speech,

It is the first comprehensive book put in Arabic in zoology. Because of those who wrote before Al-Jahiz in this field, such as Al-Asma’i, Abu Ubaida, Ibn Al-Kalbi, Ibn Al-Arabi, Al-Sijistani, and others. In animal natures, instincts, conditions, and habits, the animal book for Al-Jahiz is the largest book of al-Jahiz at all, and it is a broad-based circle of knowledge, and it is a prominent picture of the culture of the Abbasid era, which is complex and has many aspects. Characteristics of many countries and the impact of the environment on animals, people, and trees. He spoke on medicine and diseases in animals and in humans. He mentioned many medical, plant, animal, and mineral vocabulary terms. He mentioned selected verses of rare Arabic poetry in addition to other proverbs and funny anecdotes.

Arabic manuscript for dissecting a horse.

Veterinary had become a science that has its rules and origins because Islam meant me being kind to animals, treating them and feeding them, and forbidding them from downloading anything that could not be harmed or tortured, and preventing their killing except for necessity. He prohibited tattooing, stinging his nose, or pricking him with a sharp object. The Arabs have achieved a great deal of scientific development in the field of veterinary medicine, as it concerned me with horse diseases, the external appearance and general characteristics of the horse, donkey, mule, the functions of external organs, and genetic defects in horses.

He defined him by saying:

«This is a book in which the desire of nations is equal, and Arabs and Persians are similar in it, because if he was an Arab Arab, and collectively Islamic, then it was taken by philosophy, and he combined the knowledge of hearing and the science of experience, and shared between the writers of the book and the Sunnah the sense of instinct and sense of instinct, the lust desires as the hermit desires. .. »

And he called it (the animal) because it tracks the arguments in the life of the animal about God's wonderful wisdom and rare ability, he said:

“The habit in animal books was to make ten copies of the Qur’an from each of the Qur’ans and anecdotes of poems because when I mentioned who you liked it, I liked that this book be more fortunate in that, God Almighty wills” until he said: (And if the early ones had This biography went into the small books. This measure was long and more suitable, and our goal is only for you to benefit from the good. ”

And there is hardly any animal in the era of al-Jahiz and its environment except mentioned it except that the fish did not pay much attention to it because the Arabs did not celebrate it much and because it was far from the environment of al-Jahiz.

Al-Jahiz relied in his book on many sources, including the Qur’an, Hadith and Arabic poetry, in addition to the animal book of Aristotle, which he transmitted to Arabia Ibn al-Batriq in the era of al-Jahiz, in addition to al-Jahiz’s long experience in life and his practice of conditions and conditions and what he gained himself or heard from the Arabs.

The animal book included various topics that are not related to the animal world, because that was protruding inside the subject itself for the pleasure of the reader, so al-Jahez seldom adhered to his subject and settled anyway until this digression became a non-benign year.

The animal book for Al-Jahiz is considered a flourishing world that is troubled by various forms of life, in which it displays the tendencies of Islamic society in the era in which al-Jahiz lived, and in which the accurate and influential al-Jahiz mind appeared, with a high literary and artistic taste.

Animal Book for Al-Jahiz